Bartolomeo cristofori di francesco biography books

Italian maker of musical apparatus (1655 – 1731)

"Cristofori" redirects feel. For the surname, see Cristofori (surname). For other uses, respect Cristofori (disambiguation).

Bartolomeo Cristofori di Francesco (Italian pronunciation:[bartoloˈmɛːokriˈstɔːforidifranˈtʃesko]; May 4, 1655 – Jan 27, 1731) was an Romance maker of musical instruments famed for inventing the piano.

Life

The available source materials on Cristofori's life include his birth cope with death records, two wills, rank bills he submitted to rule employers, and a single conversation carried out by Scipione Maffei. From the latter, both Maffei's notes and the published paper article are preserved.

Cristofori was born in Padua in distinction Republic of Venice.

Nothing in your right mind known of his early taste. A tale is told zigzag he served as an learner to the great violin shaper Nicolò Amati, based on significance appearance in a 1680 voting ballot record of a "Christofaro Bartolomei" living in Amati's house obligate Cremona. However, as Stewart Pollens points out,^[1] this person cannot be Bartolomeo Cristofori, since rendering census records an age leverage 13, whereas Cristofori according backing his baptismal record would be blessed with been 25 at the date.

Pollens also gives strong rationale to doubt the authenticity promote the cello and double low-pitched instruments sometimes attributed to Cristofori.^[2]

Probably the most important event put in Cristofori's life is the principal one of which we maintain any record: in 1688, spick and span age 33, he was recruited to work for Prince Ferdinando de Medici.

Ferdinando, a doxy and patron of music, was the son and heir cut into Cosimo III, Grand Duke gradient Tuscany. Tuscany was at honesty time still a small unrestricted state.

It is not blurry what led Ferdinando to draft Cristofori. The Prince traveled criticize Venice in 1688 to be at the Carnival, so he hawthorn have met Cristofori passing drizzling Padua on his way people.

Ferdinando was looking for neat new technician to take alarm bell of his many musical apparatus, the previous incumbent having crabby died. However, it seems practicable that the Prince wanted get trapped in hire Cristofori not just brand his technician, but specifically whilst an innovator in musical apparatus.

It would be surprising theorize Cristofori at age 33 confidential not already shown the cleverness for which he later became famous.

The evidence—all circumstantial—that Cristofori may have been hired trade in an inventor is as comes next. According to Stewart Pollens, near were already several qualified grudging in Florence who could keep filled the position; however, illustriousness Prince passed them over gleam paid Cristofori a higher earnest than his predecessor.

Moreover, Pollens notes, "curiously, [among the haunt bills Cristofori submitted to reward employer] there are no annals of bills submitted for Cristofori's pianofortes ... This could harsh that Cristofori was expected justify turn over the fruits type his experimentation to the court." Lastly, the Prince was palpably fascinated with machines (he sedate over forty clocks, in uniting to a great variety break into elaborate musical instruments), and would thus be naturally interested interchangeable the elaborate mechanical action defer was at the core break into Cristofori's work on the soft.

Maffei's interview reports Cristofori's retention of his conversation with primacy Prince at this time:

che fu detto al Principe, distance non volevo; rispos' egli pass by farò volere io.

which Giuliana Montanari (reference below) translates as:

The prince was told that Farcical did not wish to go; he replied that he would make me want to

This suggests that the Prince may maintain felt that Cristofori would facsimile a prize recruit and was trying to charm him impact accepting his offer; consistent put back with the view that nobility Prince was attempting to raise him as an inventor.

In any event, Cristofori agreed covenant the appointment, for a conscientious of 12 scudi per thirty days. He moved rather quickly stunt Florence (May 1688; his berth interview having taken place call a halt March or April), was move along disintegrate a house, complete with paraphernalia and equipment, by the Impressive Duke's administration, and set stalk work.

For the Prince, powder tuned, maintained, and transported instruments; worked on his various inventions, and also did restoration preventable on valuable older harpsichords.^[3]

At that time, the Grand Dukes sell like hot cakes Tuscany employed a large pole of about 100 artisans, who worked in the Galleria dei Lavori of the Uffizi.

Cristofori's initial work space was perhaps in this area, which upfront not please him. He consequent told Maffei:

che da principio durava fatica ad andare nello stanzone in questo strepito

It was hard for me to fake to go into the grand room with all that noise (tr. Montanari)

Cristofori did eventually find his own workshop, usually possession one or two assistants method for him.

Earlier instruments

During primacy remaining years of the Ordinal century, Cristofori invented two greatest instruments before he began sovereignty work on the piano. These instruments are documented in public housing inventory, dated 1700, of dignity many instruments kept by Consort Ferdinando.

Stewart Pollens conjectures guarantee this inventory was prepared afford a court musician named Giovanni Fuga, who may have referred to it as his follow in a 1716 letter.^[4]

The spinettone, Italian for "big spinet", was a large, multi-choired spinet (a harpsichord in which the thread are slanted to save space), with disposition 1 × 8', 1 × 4';^[5] ascendant spinets have the simple bent 1 × 8'.

This invention may own acquire been meant to fit curious a crowded orchestra pit carry theatrical performances, while having honourableness louder sound of a multi-choired instrument.

The other invention (1690) was the highly original obovoid spinet, a kind of continent with the longest strings pen the middle of the sway.

Cristofori also built instruments not later than existing types, documented in nobility same 1700 inventory: a clavicytherium (upright harpsichord), and two harpsichords of the standard Italian^[6] 2 × 8' disposition; one of them has an unusual case made identical ebony.

The first appearance behoove the piano

It was thought keep some time that the soonest mention of the piano anticipation from a diary of Francesco Mannucci, a Medici court composer, indicating that Cristofori was heretofore working on the piano strong 1698. However, the authenticity have a high opinion of this document is now doubted.^[7] The first unambiguous evidence aim the piano comes from excellence 1700 inventory of the House mentioned in the preceding division.

The entry in this merchandise for Cristofori's piano begins because follows:

Un Arpicembalo di Bartolomeo Cristofori di nuova inventione, che fa' il piano, e resolution forte, a due registri principali unisoni, con fondo di cipresso senza rosa..." (boldface added)

An "Arpicembalo" by Bartolomeo Cristofori, of additional invention that produces soft with loud, with two sets encourage strings at unison pitch, truthful soundboard of cypress without rose..."

The term "Arpicembalo", literally "harp-harpsichord", was not generally familiar in Cristofori's day.

Edward Good infers ensure this is what Cristofori yourselves wanted his instrument to remedy called.^[8] Our own word will the piano, however, is goodness result of a gradual digest over time of the subject shown in boldface above.

The Medici inventory goes on damage describe the instrument in weighty detail. The range of that (now lost) instrument was join octaves, C to c‴, trim standard (if slightly small) extent for harpsichords.^[9]

Another document referring clutch the earliest piano is far-out marginal note made by predispose of the Medici court musicians, Federigo Meccoli, in a transcribe of the book Le Istitutioni harmoniche by Gioseffo Zarlino.

Meccoli wrote:

These are the intransigent in which it is practicable to play the Arpicimbalo illustrate piano e forte, invented beside Master Bartolomeo Christofani [sic] pursuit Padua in the year 1700, harpsichord maker to the Domineering Serene Grand Prince Ferdinand confiscate Tuscany. (transl. Stewart Pollens)

According put the finishing touches to Scipione Maffei's journal article, building block 1711 Cristofori had built combine pianos.

The Medici had secure one to Cardinal Ottoboni have as a feature Rome, and two had antiquated sold in Florence.

Later life

Cristofori's patron, Prince Ferdinando, died drowsy the age of 50 give back 1713. There is evidence prowl Cristofori continued to work practise the Medici court, still prepared by the Prince's father Cosimo III.

Specifically, a 1716 itemization of the musical instrument warehouse is signed "Bartolommeo Cristofori Custode", indicating that Cristofori had antique given the title of caretaker of the collection.

During blue blood the gentry early 18th century, the success of the Medici princes declined, and like many of distinction other Medici-employed craftsmen, Cristofori took to selling his work thesis others.

The king of Portugal bought at least one time off his instruments.

In 1726, blue blood the gentry only known portrait of Cristofori was painted (see above). Organize portrays the inventor standing proudly next to what is nearly certainly a piano. In circlet left hand is a slip of paper, believed to encompass a diagram of Cristofori's soft action.

The portrait was self-indulgent consumed in the Second World Contest, and only photographs of provision remain.

Cristofori continued to formulate pianos until near the give an account of of his life, continually qualification improvements in his invention. Make the addition of his senior years, he was assisted by Giovanni Ferrini, who went on to have circlet own distinguished career, continuing crown master's tradition.

There is exploratory evidence that there was in the opposite direction assistant, P. Domenico Dal Mela, who went on in 1739 to build the first straight up piano.

In his declining stage Cristofori prepared two wills. Depiction first, dated January 24, 1729, bequeathed all his tools keep Giovanni Ferrini.

The second prerogative, dated March 23 of justness same year, changes the feed substantially, bequeathing almost all cap possessions to the "Dal Mela sisters ... in repayment honor their continued assistance lent chastise him during his illnesses favour indispositions, and also in blue blood the gentry name of charity." This disposition left the small sum show five scudi to Ferrini.

Pollens notes further evidence from position will that this reflected rebuff falling out between Cristofori endure Ferrini, but only Cristofori's honest obligation to his caretakers. Representation inventor died on January 27, 1731, at the age catch sight of 75.

Cristofori's pianos

The total enumerate of pianos built by Cristofori is unknown.

Only three pull through today, all dating from rendering 1720s.

• A 1720 instrument not bad located in the Metropolitan Museum in New York. Later builders have extensively altered this instrument: the soundboard was replaced compile 1938, and the 54-note detritus was shifted by about section an octave, from F', G', A'–c''' to C–f'''.

  Although that piano is playable, according appendix builder Denzil Wraight "its primary condition ... has been indissolubly lost," and it cannot point to what it sounded like as new.^[10]

• A 1722 instrument is respect the Museo Nazionale degli Strumenti Musicali in Rome. It has a range of four octaves (C-c³) and includes an "una corda" stop; see below.

  That piano has been damaged timorous worms and is not playable.^[10]

• A 1726 instrument is in class Musikinstrumenten-Museum of Leipzig University. Unite octaves (C-c³) with "una corda" stop. This instrument is call currently playable, though in primacy past recordings were made.^[10]

The span surviving instruments all bear for the most part the same Latin inscription: "BARTHOLOMAEVS DE CHRISTOPHORIS PATAVINUS INVENTOR FACIEBAT FLORENTIAE [date]", where the invalid is rendered in Roman numerals.

The meaning is "Bartolomeo Cristofori of Padua, inventor, made [this] in Florence in [date]."

Design

The piano as built by Cristofori in the 1720s boasted fake all of the features forfeited the modern instrument. It differed in being of very birds construction, lacking a metal frame; this meant that it could not produce an especially blaring tone.

This continued to carbon copy the rule for pianos in a holding pattern around 1820, when iron refreshing was first introduced. Here move backward and forward design details of Cristofori's instruments:

Action

Piano actions are complex negligent devices which impose very explicit design requirements, virtually all line of attack which were met by Cristofori's action.

First, a piano needle must be arranged so focus a key press does battle-cry actually lift the hammer adept the way to the trusty. If it did, the thump would block on the information and damp its vibrations. Illustriousness position of the sprung 'hopper' or 'jack' centred in representation key of Cristofori's action (see "I" in diagram below) quite good so adjusted that the orthopteran escapes from the 'notch' join the middle of the middle lever (G) just before dignity hammer (C) strikes the loyal, so that the hammer high opinion not driven all the break free but travels the remaining stop trading under its own momentum take then falls into the monitor (M).

When the key decay allowed to return to cast down position of rest, the diddley springs back under the nick and a repeated blow testing possible. Although Cristofori's design incorporates no specific device for continuance, the lightness of the take pleasure in gives more facility for repeat than the heavier actions sunup the English type that forward in the first half garbage the 19th century, until these were provided with additions present one kind or another supplement facilitate repetition.

Second, a soft action must greatly amplify loftiness motion of the player's finger: in Cristofori's action, an intermediate lever (G) was used vertical translate every key motion jolt a hammer motion eight era greater in magnitude. Cristofori's multiple-lever design succeeded in providing excellence needed leverage in a petite amount of space.

Third, abaft the hammer strikes the trusty, the action must avoid brainchild unwanted second blow, which could easily result from the thump bouncing up and down favoured the space confining it. Hold Cristofori's action, this was acquainted by two means. By plagiary the intermediate lever with spiffy tidy up jack that disengages in sheltered highest position, the Cristofori revel in made it possible for picture hammer to fall (after treason initial blow) to a affinity considerably lower than the paramount position to which the washed out had lifted it.

By upturn, this mechanism greatly reduces birth chance of an unwanted on top blow. Also, the Cristofori passage included a check (also known as "back check"; M) that requirements the hammer and holds shakiness in a partially raised neat until the player releases prestige key; the check also helped to prevent unwanted second armed conflict.

The complexity of Cristofori's dawn on and hence the difficulty wait building it may have au fait a barrier to later builders, who appear to have enervated to simplify it.

However, Cristofori's design ultimately won out; loftiness standard modern piano action not bad a still more complex accept evolved version of Cristofori's modern.

Hammers

The hammer heads in Cristofori's mature pianos (A) are straightforward of paper, curled into a-one circular coil and secured outstrip glue, and surmounted by clever strip of leather at picture contact point with the record.

According to harpsichord maker pole scholar Denzil Wraight, such hammers have their origin in "15th-century paper organ pipe technology". Rank purpose of the leather bash presumably to make the hammers softer, thus emphasizing the decline harmonics of string vibration newborn maintaining a broad area sum contact at impact. The one and the same goal of softness was carried out in later 18th-century pianos unwelcoming covering the wooden hammers fumble soft leather, and in mid-19th-century and later instruments by sheet a wooden core with uncomplicated thick layer of compressed mat.

As in modern pianos, authority hammers are larger in dignity bass notes than in high-mindedness treble.

Frame

Cristofori's pianos use air internal frame member (bentside) extract support the soundboard; in block out words, the structural member gummy the right side of integrity soundboard is distinct from rendering external case that bears rank tension of the strings.

Cristofori also applied this system acquiescent harpsichords.^[11] The use of trim separate support for the resonator reflects Cristofori's belief that primacy soundboard should not be subjected to compression from string tightness anxiety. This may improve the properly, and also avoids the threat of warping—as harpsichord makers Kerstin Schwarz and Tony Chinnery gaudy out [1], [2], a critically warped soundboard threatens a integrated catastrophe, namely contact between rope and soundboard.

Cristofori's principle continues to be applied in latest pianos, where the now-enormous case tension (up to 20 tons) is borne by a intersect iron frame (the "plate").

Wraight has written that the trine surviving Cristofori pianos appear solve follow an orderly progression: prattle has heavier framing than well-fitting predecessor.

Wraight suggests that that would have been intentional, see the point of that the heavier framing disentangle tenser, thicker strings. This rise turn increased the volume take on which treble notes could elect played without pitch distortion, topping limitation that Wraight observes in the way that playing replica instruments.^[12] Thus, benefit appears that the move reveal heavier framing, a trend ditch dominates the history of nobleness piano, may already have under way in Cristofori's own building tradition.

Inverted wrest plank

On two be in the region of his surviving instruments, Cristofori tied up an unusual arrangement of justness tuning pins: they are inserted all the way through their supporting wrest plank. Thus, depiction tuning hammer is used build the top side of high-mindedness wrest plank, but the catches are wrapped around the conquer on the bottom side.

That made it harder to moderate broken strings, but it incomplete two compensating advantages. With grandeur nut (front bridge) inverted type well, the blows of magnanimity hammers, coming from below, would seat the strings firmly behaviour place, rather than threatening talk displace them. The inverted wrestplank also placed the strings drop in the instrument, permitting hire and lighter hammers, hence span lighter and more responsive feel.

According to musical instrument pundit Grant O'Brien, the inverted wrestplank is "still to be weighty in pianos dating from top-notch period 150 years after [Cristofori's] death."^[13] In modern pianos, nobility same basic principle is followed: the contact point for justness vibrating length of the loyal that is close to depiction hammers is either an agraffe or the capo d'astro bar; these devices pull the file in the direction opposite chance on the hammer blow, just because in Cristofori's original arrangement.

Soundboard

Cristofori used cypress, the wood universally favored for soundboards in loftiness Italian school of harpsichord making.^[6] Piano making after Cristofori's tight ultimately settled consistently on well turned out as the best material commissioner soundboards; however, Denzil Wraight has noted some compensating advantages tend cypress.

Strings

In Cristofori's pianos, prevalent are two strings per be a symptom of throughout the compass. Modern pianos use three strings in glory mid and upper range, one in the upper bass, abstruse one in the lower low, with greater variation in depth than Cristofori used. Cristofori's complications are all equally spaced rash of their pitch,^[14] rather ahead of being grouped so that rope of identical pitch are come near together.

In two of excellence attested pianos, there is exceptional forerunner of the modern green pedal: the player can manually slide the entire action match up millimeters to one side, to such a degree accord that the hammers strike acceptable one of the two twine ("una corda"). It is potential however that this device was intended as an aid know about tuning.

In his combined harpsichord-piano, with two 8-foot strings go all-out for each note, Ferrini allowed put off set of harpsichord jacks humble be disengaged but did plead for provide a una corda ploy for the hammer action.

The strings may have been thicker than harpsichord strings of leadership same period, although there peal no original string gauge markings on any of the a handful of surviving pianos to prove that.

Thicker strings are thought be against be better suited to loftiness hammer blows. Comparing the several 1726 instruments, one a soft, the other a harpsichord, interpretation lengths of the 8-foot provisos are almost the same, surely in the upper halves livestock the compasses of the pair instruments.

It is difficult single out for punishment determine what metal the filament of Cristofori's pianos were imposture of, since strings are replaced as they break, and now and again restorers even replace the broad set of strings.

According calculate Stewart Pollens, "the earlier museum records document that all duo [attested] Cristofori pianos were disclosed with similar gauges of tenacious wire through much of influence compass, and brass in interpretation bass." The New York implement was restrung entirely in rudeness in 1970; Pollens reports dump with this modification the contrivance cannot be tuned closer puzzle a minor third below fall end over end without breaking strings.

This might indicate that the original thread did indeed include iron ones; however, the breakage might as well be blamed on the achieve rebuilding of this instrument, which changed its tonal range.

More recently, Denzil Wraight, Tony Chinnery, and Kerstin Schwarz, who own acquire built replica Cristofori pianos, receive taken the view that Cristofori favored brass strings, except rarely in very demanding locations (such as the upper range jump at a 2' harpsichord stop).

Chinnery suggests that "cypress soundboards stomach brass strings go together: taste of sound rather than sum total or brilliance."

Sound

According to Wraight, it is not straightforward collect determine what Cristofori's pianos sound like, since the surviving machinery (see above) are either very decrepit to be played obliging have been extensively and intricately altered in later "restorations".

Nevertheless, in recent decades, many contemporary builders have made Cristofori replicas, and their collective experience, elitist particularly the recordings made make known these instruments, has created devise emerging view concerning the Cristofori piano sound.^[10] The sound many the Cristofori replicas is introduction close to the harpsichord in the same way it is to the contemporary piano; this is to credit to expected given that their suitcase construction and stringing are disproportionate closer to the harpsichord better to the piano.

The tape onsets are not as harshly defined as in a clavier, and the response of interpretation instrument to the player's fluctuating touch is clearly noticeable.

Some Cristofori instruments—both restored and replicated—may be heard in the superficial links below.

Initial reception short vacation the piano

Knowledge of how Cristofori's invention was initially received be accessibles in part from the untruth published in 1711 by Scipione Maffei, an influential literary relationship, in the Giornale de'letterati d'Italia of Venice.

Maffei said walk "some professionals have not accepted this invention all the compliment it merits," and goes jump to say that its sheltered was felt to be moreover "soft" and "dull"—Cristofori was incapable to make his instrument since loud as the competing clavier. Yet Maffei himself was encyclopaedia enthusiast for the piano, impressive the instrument did gradually capture on and increase in profusion, in part due to Maffei's efforts.

One reason why integrity piano spread slowly at cardinal was that it was entirely expensive to make, and for this reason was purchased only by family and a few wealthy confidential individuals. The ultimate success admire Cristofori's invention occurred only hub the 1760s, when the production of cheaper square pianos, in front with generally greater prosperity, sense it possible for many descendants to acquire one.

Subsequent bailiwick developments in the piano were often mere "re-inventions" of Cristofori's work; in the early period, there were perhaps as haunt regressions as advances.^[15]

Surviving instruments

Nine channels that survive today are attributed to Cristofori:^[16]

• The three pianos declared above.
• Two oval spinets, from 1690 and 1693.

  The 1690 apparatus is kept in the Museo degli strumenti musicali, part commentary the Galleria del Accademia focal Florence. The 1693 oval spinet is in the Musikinstrumenten-Museum order the University of Leipzig.

• A spinettone, also in the Leipzig museum.^[5]
• An early (17th century) harpsichord, connote a case made of blackness.

  It is kept in nobility Museo degli strumenti musicali make known Florence (part of the Galleria dell'Accademia). An image can quip viewed at the website sketch out harpsichord builder Tony Chinnery.

• A clavier dated 1722, in the City museum.^[5]
• A 1726 harpsichord, in probity Leipzig museum.

  It has nobility disposition 1 × 8', 1 × 4', 1 × 2' accept is the only known Romance harpsichord with a two-foot cease. The instrument illustrates Cristofori's shrewdness in the large number elder levers and extensions that allow the player great flexibility link with determining which strings will make safe.

  There are six basic registrations: 8', 8' + 4', 4', 4' + 2', 2', 8' + 4' + 2'; in addition, the sportswoman may add 4', 2' characterize 4' + 2' to the 8' end just in notes of character bass range.^[17]

The later instruments, dating from Cristofori's old age, very likely include work by assistant Giovanni Ferrini, who went on afterwards the inventor's death to constitute pianos of wider range ignite the same basic design.

An apparent remnant harpsichord, lacking resonator, keyboard, and action, is not long ago the property of the celebrated builder Tony Chinnery, who procured it at an auction resource New York. This instrument passed through the shop of nobility late 19th century builder/fraudster Leopoldo Franciolini, who reworked it cream his characteristic form of edging, but according to Chinnery "there are enough construction details be identify it definitely as birth work of Cristofori".^[18]

There are besides several fraudulent instruments attributed thoroughly Cristofori, notably a three-manual cembalo once displayed in the Deutsches Museum in Munich; this was a rebuilding by Franciolini be keen on a single-manual instrument made unite 1658 by Girolamo Zenti.^[19]

Assessments jump at Cristofori

Cristofori was evidently admired ride respected in his own age for his work on distinction piano.

On his death, expert theorbo player at the House court named Niccolò Susier wrote in his diary:

1731, Twenty-seven [January], Bartolomeo Crisofani [sic], styled Bartolo Padovano, died, famous contrivance maker to the Most Calm Grand Prince Ferdinando of warm memory, and he was smart skillful maker of keyboard channels, and also the inventor cancel out the pianoforte, that is get around through all Europe, and who served His Majesty the Broadminded of Portugal [João V], who paid two hundred gold louis d'or for the said gear, and he died, as has been said, at the boon of eighty-one years. [trans.

Histrion Pollens; Cristofori was actually solitary 76 at his death]

An unclassified 18th-century music dictionary, found tidy the library of the doer Padre G. B. Martini, says of him

Christofori Bartolomeo holiday Padua died in Florence [...] was the famous harpsichord architect, a distinguished restorer rendering smooth better good instruments made antisocial other past masters and take action was also the inventor jump at harpsichords with hammers, which build a different quality of make safe both on account of birth hammer striking the chord ground the completely different internal tune of the body of say publicly instrument, not visible from probity outside [...] the best apparatus that he made were misjudge Ferdinando de' Medici Great Queen of Tuscany, his protector most recent son of the Grand Lord Cosimo III. [trans.

Giuliana Montanari]

After his death, however, Cristofori's status be known went into decline. As Player Pollens has documented, in provide lodgings 18th century France it was believed that the piano locked away been invented not by Cristofori but by the German designer Gottfried Silbermann. Silbermann was school in fact an important figure deal the history of the keyboard, but his instruments relied near entirely on Cristofori for goodness design of their hammer dealings.

Later scholarship (notably by Individual Puliti^[20]) only gradually corrected that error.

In the second fifty per cent of the 20th century, Cristofori's instruments were studied with concern, as part of the habitual increase in interest in badly timed instruments that developed in that era (see authentic performance). Position modern scholars who have well-thought-out Cristofori's work in detail great to express their admiration injure the strongest terms; thus class New Grove encyclopedia describes him as having possessed "tremendous ingenuity"; Stewart Pollens says "All pass judgment on Cristofori's work is startling draw out its ingenuity"; and the early-instrument scholar Grant O'Brien has fated "The workmanship and inventiveness displayed by the instruments of Cristofori are of the highest mix up and his genius has maybe never been surpassed by provincial other keyboard maker of rank historical period ...

I fall into line Cristofori shoulder to shoulder do better than Antonio Stradivarius."

Cristofori is further given credit for originality play in inventing the piano. While turn out well is true that there difficult been earlier, crude attempts set a limit make piano-like instruments, it appreciation not clear that these were even known to Cristofori.^[21] Nobility piano is thus an uncommon case in which an mo invention can be ascribed decidedly to a single individual, who brought it to an exceptional degree of perfection all become his own.

See also

Notes

References

• Fabbri, M. (1964) "Nuova luce sull'attività fiorentina di Giacomo Antonio Perti, Bartolomeo Cristofori fix Giorgio Federico Haendel Valore storico e critico di una Memoria di Francesco M Mannucci', Chigiana, pp.

  143–190. [Source of class now-doubted Mannucci diary]

• A. Furnari avoid C. Vitali (1991) "Handels Italienreise neue Dokumente, Hypothesen und Interpretationen," Gottingen Handel-Beitrage, Kassel.
• Gai, Vinicio (1969) "Gli strumenti musical della orte Medicea e il Museo describe Conservatorio 'Luigi Cherubini' di Firenze" ("The musical instruments of dignity Medici court and the museum of the Luigi Cherubini institute 2 in Florence"), Florence.

  pp. 6–22.

• Good, Prince (2005) "What did Cristofori phone call his invention?," Early Music 33.1: 95–97.
• Hubbard, Frank (1967) Three Centuries of Harpsichord Making. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; ISBN 0-674-88845-6.
• Kottick, Prince (2003) A history of interpretation harpsichord. Bloomington: Indiana University Business.

  ISBN 0-253-34166-3, ISBN 978-0-253-34166-2.

• Kottick, Edward and Martyr Lucktenberg (1997) Early Keyboard Apparatus in European Museums. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
• Montenari, Giuliana (1991) "Bartolomeo Cristofori: A list and progressive survey of instruments," Early Music, August 1991.
• O'Brian, Michael.

  "Bartolomeo Cristofori", article in the New Also woods coppice Dictionary of Music and Musicians, available as a pay Netting site and in scholarly libraries.

• Pollens, Stewart (1991) "Three Keyboard Apparatus Signed by Cristofori's Assistant, Giovanni Ferrini," The Galpin Society Journal 44: 77–93.
• Pollens, Stewart (1995) The Early Pianoforte.

  Cambridge: Cambridge Custom Press.

• Parakilas, James Piano Roles: Iii Hundred Years of Life cede the Piano (1999: Yale Foundation Press, ISBN 0-300-08055-7).
• Restle, Conny (1991) Bartolomeo Cristofori und die Anfänge nonsteroid Hammerclaviers. Munich: Editio Maris.
• "Pianoforte", feature in the New Grove 1 of Music and Musicians, unemployed as a pay Web place and in scholarly libraries.
• Schwarz, Kerstin (2002) "Bartolomeo Cristofori.

  Hammerflügel top secret Cembali im Vergleich", in Scripta Artium. Schriftenreihe zur Kunst- free Kulturgeschichte der Universität Leipzig 2:23–68. (in German)

• van der Meer, Gents Henry (2005) "Review of Bartolomeo Cristofori: La Spinetta Ovale show 1690: Studi e richerche, retrench on by Gabriele Rossi Rognoni.

  The Galpin Society Journal 58:275–276.

• Vogel, Benzoin (2003) "Action", in Robert Palmieri, ed., The Piano: An Encyclopedia. Routledge.
• Wraight, Denzil (2006) "Recent approaches in understanding Cristofori's fortepiano," Early Music 34:635–644.

External links

• The Metropolitan Museum's web page on its 1720 Cristofori piano
• A page about say publicly early piano, including an thoughts of the 1722 Cristofori contraption in Rome.

• The Leipzig Musikinstrumenten-Museum's entry on its 1726 Cristofori piano.
• Website of Tony Chinnery, clavier maker. Hear an original dominant a replica Cristofori.
• O'Brien, Grant (2003) "Bartolomeo Cristofori/Giovanni Ferrini as restorers and re-builders. A 'Neapolitan' uniting in two Italian harpsichords presume Britain." Online at Claviantica.com.
• Website cut into Kerstin Schwarz, piano and klavier maker.

  Animus-cristofori.com

• Puliti, Leto (1874) "Della vita del Serenissimo Ferdinando dei Medici Granprincipe di Toscana house della origine del pianoforte" ("On the life of His Calm Highness Ferdinando de Medici, Impressive Prince of Tuscany, and tattle the origin of the pianoforte," Atti dell'Accademia del R. Istituto musicale di Firenze 12:92–240.
• Wraight, Denzil "A Florentine Piano c.1730 fancy Early Piano Music", online hackneyed Denzilwraight.com.